We assessed the acute effect of beetroot extract intake on cardiovascular and autonomic recovery subsequent to strength exercise.This is a crossover, randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial. We assessed 16 subjects but only 12 healthy male adults completed the two protocols in two randomized days: Beetroot extract (600 mg in capsule) and placebo (600 mg starch in capsule). Beetroot extract or placebo was ingested, the subjects endured 120 minutes seated at rest, followed by a 75% 1RM strength exercise and then remained seated for 60 minutes at rest. Cardiorespiratory parameters, heart rate (HR) variability (HRV) (SDNN, rMSSD, pNN50, SD1, SD2 HF [ms]) were estimated before, during exercise and during recovery from exercise.ingestion of beetroot extract before exercise: accelerates the recovery of SBP following physical effort; improves HR recovery to baseline resting levels (beetroot protocol: change in∼62% vs. placebo protocol: change in ∼80%), and intensifies the return of vagal HR control during recovery after exercise.Beetroot extract acutely improved cardiovascular and autonomic recovery after exercise.

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether 14 days of supplementation with maritime pine extract leading up to and following an exercise test would increase performance and reduce biomarkers associated with muscle damage, inflammation, and oxidative stress. The study used a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over design. Twenty apparently healthy young male participants ingested either 800 mg pine bark extract or placebo for 14 days prior to the first exercise trial and for 2 days postexercise. On the exercise day, participants submitted a pre-exercise blood sample then completed a VOpeak test until volitional failure. A postexercise blood sample was collected 1 hour after completion of exercise. Participants returned at 24 and 48 hours after the exercise testing for measures of muscle pain in the lower body using an algometer. Participants then had a 7-day washout period before beginning to cross over to the alternate treatment. Analysis via ordinal regression demonstrated a significant difference in oxidative stress in the maritime pine extract group compared to placebo (ChiSq = 2.63; p = 0.045). Maritime pine extract was effective at affording protection from oxidative stress postexercise. Further work should be undertaken to evaluate thefindings with other exercise modes or in participants with known metabolic syndrome.

PURPOSE: Antioxidant supplementation may modulate systemic cortisol and interleukin-6 (IL-6) responses to prolonged exercise, but it is unclear whether such effects are also associated with a reduction in the magnitude of immunodepression. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of daily vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid, 1000 mg x d(-1)) and vitamin E (RRR-alpha-tocopherol, 400 IU x d(-1)) supplementation on immunoendocrine responses to prolonged exercise. METHODS: Twenty healthy, recreationally active males cycled for 2.5 h at approximately 60% of maximal oxygen uptake after 4 wk of placebo (PLA, N=10) or antioxidant (AO, N=10) supplementation. RESULTS: A significant group x time interaction was observed for plasma cortisol concentration (P=0.008), and the postexercise increase was greater (P<0.05) in the PLA compared with AO group (approximately 170% compared with an approximately 120% increase above baseline). Plasma IL-6 concentration was significantly increased after exercise to a similar extent in both groups. Plasma free F2-isoprostane concentration was significantly increased after exercise and was unaffected by AO supplementation, whereas plasma TBARS was unaffected by exercise in the PLA group but was lower after exercise in the AO group than in the PLA group. Circulating neutrophil count was significantly increased after exercise, and in vitro bacteria-stimulated elastase release per neutrophil was significantly decreased to a similar extent in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that 4 wk of AO supplementation may blunt the cortisol response to a single 2.5-h bout of prolonged exercise independently of changes in oxidative stress or plasma IL-6 concentration, but it is not effective at modulating the exercise-induced neutrophilia or depression of neutrophil function.

Regular exercise is essential to a healthy lifestyle but evokes an oxidative and inflammatory stress. Depending upon its intensity and duration this can result in either beneficial adaptive changes or underlying tissue damage that impacts upon long-term health and individual sporting training schedules. Functional foods containing plant bioactives have potential to support exercise through management of the detrimental aspects of exercise and complement ergonomic adaptive benefits.Previously we reported that a single consumption of a 3.2 mg/kg New Zealand blackcurrant anthocyanin-rich extract (BAE) 1 h before a 30 min rowing exercise attenuated moderate exercise-mediated oxidative stress and supported innate immunity. Here we evaluate whether the efficacy of a single consumption of BAE 1 h prior to exercise is changed after extended daily BAE consumption for 5 weeks.On week 1, a single consumption of BAE 1 h before a 30 min row mediated a significant (<0.05) 46% reduction in post-exercise-induced malondialdehyde (MDA) by 2 h compared to a 30% reduction in the placebo group. Similar efficacy was observed 5 weeks later after daily consumption of BAE. In addition, daily BAE consumption for 5 weeks improved the efficacy to (a) resolve acute inflammation, and (b) increased plasma IL-10, salivary beta-defensin 2 (BD2) and secretory IgA. Although no change in plasma antioxidant capacity was detected, a significant (<0.009) positive correlation between plasma IL-10 and plasma antioxidant capacity (= 0.35) was observed on week 6 after 5 week BAE consumption suggesting IL-10 influences antioxidant properties. Using a differentiated myotubule cell-line revealed that whilst IL-10 had no direct antioxidant neutralizing action, longer-term exposure (24 h) attenuated 2,2'-Azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH)-induced myotubule oxidative stress, supporting a putative role for IL-10 in the modulation of cellular antioxidant systems.Daily consumption of BAE for 5 weeks serves to enhance the exercise recovery effectiveness of a single consumption of BAE and promotes beneficial/protective antioxidant/anti-inflammatory cellular events that facilitate exercise recovery.

Gonzalez, AM and Trexler, ET. Effects of citrulline supplementation on exercise performance in humans: A review of the current literature. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-L-citrulline, a nonessential amino acid found primarily in watermelon, has recently garnered much attention for its potential to augment L-arginine bioavailability, nitric oxide production, and exercise performance. Over the past decade, L-citrulline has received considerable scientific attention examining potentially ergogenic properties for both aerobic and anaerobic exercise performance. Thus, the purpose of this article is to summarize the theoretical rationale behind L-citrulline supplementation and to comprehensively review the available scientific evidence assessing the potential ergogenic value of L-citrulline supplementation on vascular function and exercise performance in humans. In addition, research that has investigated the potential synergistic effects of L-citrulline with other dietary ingredients (e.g., arginine, antioxidants, nitrates, and branched-chain amino acids) is reviewed. Oral L-citrulline and citrulline malate supplementation have shown to increase plasma citrulline and arginine concentrations, along with total nitrate and nitrite concentrations. Although blood flow enhancement is a proposed mechanism for the ergogenic potential of L-citrulline, evidence supporting acute improvements in vasodilation and skeletal muscle tissue perfusion after supplementation is scarce and inconsistent. Nevertheless, several studies have reported that L-citrulline supplementation can enhance exercise performance and recovery. Given the positive effects observed from some investigations, future studies should continue to investigate the effects of both acute and chronic supplementation with L-citrulline and citrulline malate on markers of blood flow and exercise performance and should seek to elucidate the mechanism underlying such effects.

PURPOSE:This study investigated effects of far-infrared sauna (FIRS) bathing on recovery from strength training and endurance training sessions, but also possible differences between FIRS and traditional (TRAD) Finnish sauna bathing.

METHODS:Ten healthy physically active male volunteers had on various days either a 60 min hypertrophic strength training session (STS) or a 34-40 min maximal endurance training session (ETS), which was following by 30 min bathing in special FIRS sauna at temperature of 35-50°C and humidity of 25-35%. After the sauna, subjects sat for 30 min at room temperature (21°C and 25-30%humidity). In comparison, 30 min of TRAD took place at 35-50°C and in 60-70% humidity. Performance tests included maximal isometric bench press and leg press, counter movement jump (CMJ) and maximal oxygen uptake on a treadmill.

RESULTS:After STS, there were decreases in maximal isometric bench press (p < 0.001), maximal isometric leg press (p < 0.001), CMJ (p < 0.001) and pH (p < 0.001), but increases in heart rate (p < 0.001) and lactate concentration (p < 0.001) as expected. During recovery there were no differences in any variables between FIRS and no sauna bathing (NO SAUNA). Maximal ETS increased oxygen uptake (p < 0.001), heart rate (p < 0.001), lactate concentration (p < 0.001) and decreased pH (p < 0.001) as expected. During recovery at 30 min, CMJ was significantly (p < 0.05) higher (0.34 ± 0.09 m) after FIRS bathing than after sitting with NO SAUNA (0.32 ± 0.0 m). After sauna heart rate was higher (p < 0.05) in TRAD (92 ± 13 beats/min) than in FIRS (71 ± 7 beats/min).

CONCLUSION:In conclusion, deep penetration of infrared heat (approximately 3-4 cm into fat tissue and neuromuscular system) with mild temperature (35-50°C), and light humidity (25-35%) during FIRS bathing appears favorable for the neuromuscular system to recover from maximal endurance performance. FIRS bathing is a very light loading for the body and provides a comfortableand relaxing experience.

PURPOSE:This study investigated effects of far-infrared sauna (FIRS) bathing on recovery from strength training and endurance training sessions, but also possible differences between FIRS and traditional (TRAD) Finnish sauna bathing.

METHODS:Ten healthy physically active male volunteers had on various days either a 60 min hypertrophic strength training session (STS) or a 34-40 min maximal endurance training session (ETS), which was following by 30 min bathing in special FIRS sauna at temperature of 35-50°C and humidity of 25-35%. After the sauna, subjects sat for 30 min at room temperature (21°C and 25-30%humidity). In comparison, 30 min of TRAD took place at 35-50°C and in 60-70% humidity. Performance tests included maximal isometric bench press and leg press, counter movement jump (CMJ) and maximal oxygen uptake on a treadmill.

RESULTS:After STS, there were decreases in maximal isometric bench press (p < 0.001), maximal isometric leg press (p < 0.001), CMJ (p < 0.001) and pH (p < 0.001), but increases in heart rate (p < 0.001) and lactate concentration (p < 0.001) as expected. During recovery there were no differences in any variables between FIRS and no sauna bathing (NO SAUNA). Maximal ETS increased oxygen uptake (p < 0.001), heart rate (p < 0.001), lactate concentration (p < 0.001) and decreased pH (p < 0.001) as expected. During recovery at 30 min, CMJ was significantly (p < 0.05) higher (0.34 ± 0.09 m) after FIRS bathing than after sitting with NO SAUNA (0.32 ± 0.0 m). After sauna heart rate was higher (p < 0.05) in TRAD (92 ± 13 beats/min) than in FIRS (71 ± 7 beats/min).

CONCLUSION:In conclusion, deep penetration of infrared heat (approximately 3-4 cm into fat tissue and neuromuscular system) with mild temperature (35-50°C), and light humidity (25-35%) during FIRS bathing appears favorable for the neuromuscular system to recover from maximal endurance performance. FIRS bathing is a very light loading for the body and provides a comfortableand relaxing experience.

BACKGROUND: The effect of massage on recovery from high intensity exercise is debatable. Many studies on massage suffer from methodological flaws such as poor standardisation of previous exercise, lack of dietary control, and inappropriate massage duration. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of leg massage compared with passive recovery on lactate clearance, muscular power output, and fatigue characteristics after repeated high intensity cycling exercise, with the conditions before the intervention controlled and standardised. METHODS: Nine male games players participated. They attended the laboratory on two occasions one week apart and at the same time of day. Dietary intake and activity were replicated for the two preceding days on each occasion. After baseline measurement of heart rate and blood lactate concentration, subjects performed a standardised warm up on the cycle ergometer. This was followed by six standardised 30 second high intensity exercise bouts, interspersed with 30 seconds of active recovery. After five minutes of active recovery and either 20 minutes of leg massage or supine passive rest, subjects performed a second standardised warm up and a 30 second Wingate test. Capillary blood samples were drawn at intervals, and heart rate, peak power, mean power, and fatigue index were recorded. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in mean power during the initial high intensity exercise bouts (p = 0.92). No main effect of massage was observed on blood lactate concentration between trials (p = 0.82) or heart rate (p = 0.81). There was no difference in the maximum power (p = 0.75) or mean power (p = 0.66) in the subsequent Wingate test, but a significantly lower fatigue index was observed in the massage trial (p = 0.04; mean (SD) fatigue index 30.2 (4.1)% v 34.2 (3.3)%). CONCLUSIONS: No measurable physiological effects of leg massage compared with passive recovery were observed on recovery from high intensity exercise, but the subsequent effect on fatigue index warrants further investigation.

The functional significance of pomegranate (POM) supplementation on physiological responses during and following exercise is currently unclear. This systematic review aimed (i) to evaluate the existing literature assessing the effects of POM supplementation on exercise performance and recovery; exercise-induced muscle damage, oxidative stress, inflammation; and cardiovascular function in healthy adults and (ii) to outline the experimental conditions in which POM supplementation is more or less likely to benefit exercise performance and/or recovery. Multiple electronic databases were used to search for studies examining the effects of POM intake on physiological responses during and/or following exercise in healthy adult. Articles were included in the review if they investigated the effects of an acute or chronic POM supplementation on exercise performance, recovery and/or physiological responses during or following exercise. The existing evidence suggests that POM supplementation has the potential to confer antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects during and following exercise, to improve cardiovascular responses during exercise, and to enhance endurance and strength performance and post-exercise recovery. However, the beneficial effects of POM supplementation appeared to be less likely when (i) unilateral eccentric exercise was employed, (ii) the POM administered was not rich in polyphenols (<1·69 g/l) and (iii) insufficient time was provided between POM-ingestion and the assessment of physiological responses/performance (≤1 h). The review indicates that POM has the potential to enhance exercise performance and to expedite recovery from intensive exercise. The findings and recommendations from this review may help to optimise POM-supplementation practice in athletes and coaches to potentially improve exercise-performance and post-exercise recovery.

UNLABELLED:

BACKGROUND:Methylsulfonylmethane (MSM) has been reported to provide anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects in both animal and man. Strenuous resistance exercise has the potential to induce both inflammation and oxidative stress. Using a pilot (proof of concept) study design, we determined the influence of MSM on markers of exercise recovery and performance in healthy men.

METHODS:Eight, healthy men (27.1 ± 6.9 yrs old) who were considered to be moderately exercise-trained (exercising<150 minutes per week) were randomly assigned to ingest MSM at either 1.5 grams per day or 3.0 grams per day for 30 days (28 days before and 2 days following exercise). Before and after the 28 day intervention period, subjects performed 18 sets of knee extension exercise in an attempt to induce muscle damage (and to be used partly as a measure of exercise performance). Sets 1-15 were performed at a predetermined weight for 10 repetitions each, while sets 16-18 were performed to muscular failure. Muscle soreness (using a 5-point Likert scale), fatigue (using the fatigue-inertia subset of the Profile of Mood States), blood antioxidant status (glutathione and Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity [TEAC]), and blood homocysteine were measured before and after exercise, pre and post intervention. Exercise performance (total work performed during sets 16-18 of knee extension testing) was also measured pre and post intervention.

RESULTS:Muscle soreness increased following exercise and a trend was noted for a reduction in muscle soreness with 3.0 grams versus 1.5 grams of MSM (p = 0.080), with a 1.0 point difference between dosages. Fatigue was slightly reduced with MSM (p = 0.073 with 3.0 grams; p = 0.087 for both dosages combined). TEAC increased significantly following exercise with 3.0 grams of MSM (p = 0.035), while homocysteine decreased following exercise for both dosages combined (p = 0.007). No significant effects were noted for glutathione or total work performed during knee extension testing (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION:MSM, especially when provided at 3.0 grams per day, may favorably influence selected markers of exercise recovery. More work is needed to extend these findings, in particular using a larger sample of subjects and the inclusion of additional markers of exercise recovery and performance.

Low-level laser (light) therapy (LLLT) has been applied over skeletal muscles before intense exercise (muscular pre-conditioning) in order to reduce fatigue and muscle damage (measured by creatine kinase, CK) in clinical trials. However, previous exercise protocols do not exactly simulate the real muscle demand required in sports. For this reason, the aim of this randomized and double-blind placebo-controlled trial was to investigate whether light-emitting diode therapy (LEDT) applied over the quadriceps femoris muscles, hamstrings, and triceps surae of volleyball players before official matches could prevent muscle damage (CK) with a dose response, establishing a therapeutic window. A professional male volleyball team (12 athletes) was enrolled in this study, and LEDT was applied before 4 matches during a national championship. LEDT used an array of 200 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) arranged in 25 clusters of 4 infrared LEDs (850 ± 20 nm; 130 mW) and 25 clusters of 4 red LEDs (630 ± 10 nm; 80 mW). Athletes were randomized to receive one of four different total doses over each muscle group in a double-blind protocol: 105 J (20 s), 210 J (40 s), 315 J (60 s), and placebo (no light for 30 s). CK in blood was assessed1 h before and 24 h after each match. LEDT at 210 J avoided significant increases in CK (+10 %; P = 0.993) as well as 315 J (+31 %, P = 0.407). Placebo (0 J) allowed a significant increase in CK (+53 %; P = 0.012) as well as LEDT at 105 J (+59 %; P = 0.001). LEDT prevented significant increases of CK in blood in athletes when applied before official matches with a light dose response of 210-315 J, suggesting athletes might consider applying LEDT before competition.

This double-blinded, placebo controlled, randomized crossover trial investigated the influence of 2-week mixed flavonoid versus placebo supplementation on oxinflammation markers after a 75-km cycling time trial in 22 cyclists (42.3± 1.7 years). Blood samples were collected before and after the 2-week supplementation, and then 0 hr, 1.5 hr, and 21 hr post 75-km cycling (176 ± 5.4 min, 73.4 ±2.0% maximal oxygen consumption). The supplement provided 678-mg flavonoids with quercetin (200 mg), green tea catechins (368 mg, 180-mg epigallocatechin gallate), and anthocyanins (128 mg) from bilberry extract, with caffeine, vitamin C, and omega-3 fatty acids added as adjuvants. Blood samples were analyzed for blood leukocyte counts, oxinflammation biomarkers, including 4-hydroxynonenal, protein carbonyls, and peripheralblood mononuclear mRNA expression for cyclooxygenease-2 and glutathione peroxidase. Each of the blood biomarkers was elevated postexercise (time effects, all ps<.01), with lower plasma levels for 4-hydroxynonenal (at 21-hr postexercise) in flavonoid versus placebo (interaction effect, p = .008). Although elevated postexercise, no trial differences for the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (p = .539) or peripheral blood mononuclear mRNA expression for cyclooxygenease-2 (p = .322) or glutathione peroxidase (p = .839) were shown. Flavonoid supplementation prior to intensive exercise decreased plasma peroxidation and oxidative damage, as determined by 4-hydroxynonenal. Postexercise increases were similar between the flavonoid and placebo trials for peripheral blood mononuclear mRNA expression for cyclooxygenease-2 and the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 related gene glutathione peroxidase (NFE2L2). The data support the strategy of flavonoid supplementation to mitigate postexercise oxidative stress in endurance athletes.

The efficacy of pomegranate () extract (PE) for improving performance and post-exercise recovery in an active population was equivocal in previous studies. In this study, a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, balanced, cross-over trial with two arms was conducted. Eligibility criteria for participants were as follows: male, amateur cyclist, with a training routine of 2 to 4 sessions per week (at least one hour per session). The cyclists (= 26) were divided into treatment (PE) and placebo (PLA) groups for a period of 15 days. After physical tests, the groups were exchanged after a 14-day washout period. Exercise tests consisted of endurance bouts (square-wave endurance exercise test followed by an incremental exercise test to exhaustion) and an eccentric exercise drill. The objective was to assess the efficacy of PE in performance outcomes and post-exercise muscular recovery and force restoration after a prolonged submaximal effort. Twenty-six participants were included for statistical analysis. There was a statistically significant difference in total time to exhaustion (TTE)(17.66⁻170.94 s,<0.02) and the time to reach ventilatory threshold 2 (VT2)(26.98⁻82.55 s,<0.001), with greater values for the PE compared to the PLA group. No significant results were obtained for force restoration in the isokinetic unilateral low limb test. PE, after a prolonged submaximal effort, may be effective in improving performance outcomes at maximal effort and might help to restore force in the damaged muscles.

BACKGROUND:Heavy physical exercise causes relative hypoxia. In hypoxic condition, the cell's energy comes from anaerobic metabolism that produces lactic acid. An increment of oxygen need leads to ischemia-reperfusion, triggers free radical formation and damages muscles. Creatine kinase (CK) is a marker of muscle tissue damage. Red dragon fruit (RDF) has potential as antioxidant to reduce free radical formation.

AIM:This study aims to determine RDF extract potential to reduce the lactic acid level and CK activity after heavy physical exercise.

METHODS:A total of 32 male rats (Rattus Norvegicus) were randomly divided into 4 groups: group NORDF, treated heavy physical exercise and distilled water; group RDF100, treated heavy physical exercise and at 100 mg/kg BW RDF extract; group RDF200, treated heavy physical exercise and at 200 mg/kg BW RDF extract and group RDF300, treated heavy physical exercise and at 300 mg/kg BW RDF extract. The rats swam for 20 minutes, 3 times a week for 3 weeks.

RESULTS:RDF300 group showed lower lactic acid level and CK activity as compared to that of NORDF (p = 0.00) and RDF100 (p = 0.00) groups, but RDF300 are not significantly different for lactic acid (p = 0.45) and for CK (p = 0.68).

CONCLUSION:Red dragon fruit extract has potential in lowering lactic acid level and CK activity in male rats receiving heavy physical exercise.

PURPOSE:The psychobiological model of endurance performance proposes that the perception of effort is the ultimate determinant of endurance performance. Therefore, any physiological or psychological factor affecting the perception of effort will affect endurance performance. Accordingly, this novel study investigated the effects of a frequently used psychological strategy, motivational self-talk (ST), on RPE and endurance performance.

METHODS:In a randomized between-group pretest-posttest design, 24 participants (mean± SD age = 24.6 ± 7.5 yr, VO2max = 52.3 ± 8.7 mL·kg·min) performed two constant-load (80% peak power output) cycling time-to-exhaustion (TTE) tests, punctuated by a 2-wk ST intervention or a control phase.

RESULTS:A group (ST vs Control)× test (pretest vs posttest) mixed-model ANOVA revealed that ST significantly enhanced TTE test from pretest to posttest (637 ± 210 vs 750 ± 295 s, P<0.05) with no change in the control group (486± 157 vs 474 ± 169 s). Moreover, a group × test × isotime (0%, 50%, and 100%) mixed-model ANOVA revealed a significant interaction for RPE, with follow-up tests showing that motivational self-talk significantly reduced RPE at 50% isotime (7.3 ± 0.6 vs 6.4 ± 0.8, P<0.05), with no significant difference in the control group (6.9± 1.9 vs 7.0 ± 1.7).

CONCLUSIONS:This study is the first to demonstrate that ST significantly reduces RPE and enhances endurance performance. The findings support the psychobiological model of endurance performance and illustrate that psychobiological interventions designed to specifically target favorable changes in the perception of effort are beneficial to endurance performance. Consequently, this psychobiological model offers an important and novel perspective for future research investigations.

AIM:Recovery is essential to effective performance in climbing competitions which often involve repeated bouts, and sport climbing where climbers may work a route over a number of days prior to a complete ascent.

METHODS:This study employed a cross-over design to compare water with chocolate milk as recovery aids following an exhaustive bout of high intensity endurance climbing. Ten male climbers (age: 22±1 years; height: 178.5±7.9 cm; mass: 74.7±11.3 kg) climbed a Tredwall (Brewer Ledge M6) until volitional exhaustion. The participants consumed either water or chocolate milk 20 minutes after the climb and then again with their evening meal. The exercise protocol was repeated 24 hours after the original climb. The second condition was completed 7 days later. Workload indicators of heart rate, rate of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate and muscle soreness scores were recorded alongside climbing performance measures of duration and distance of the climb. A improved performance was foundafter the consumption of chocolate milk, with both a greater distance climbed (F(1,9)=11.704, P=0.008) and duration (F(1,9) =10.922, P=0.009), there were no differences in end of climb heart rate or RPE.

RESULTS:Muscle soreness scores were lower three days after exercise following chocolate milk (t(8)=3.773, P=0.005). Chocolate milk as a recovery drink resulted in further sustained climbing, a decrease in muscle soreness, compared to water. It may be pertinent for climbers to consider its use as a recovery aid during repeated climbing bouts. Chocolate milk is a relatively unexplored recovery aid and warrants further attention.

This study was designed to determine whether kefir accentuates the positive health benefits assessed by measures in fitness, body composition, or both, as a measure of cardiovascular disease risk as well as the biomarker C-reactive protein (CRP). Sixty-seven adult males and females aged 18 to 24 yr were assigned to 1 of 4 groups: (1) endurance training + control beverage, (2) endurance training +kefir beverage,(3) active control + control beverage, or (4) active control + kefir beverage. The exercise groups completed 15 wk of structured endurancetraining while the active control groups maintained their usual exercise routine. Additionally, each group was assigned to either a kefir or a calorie/macronutrient matched placebo beverage that was consumed twice per week. No significant interactions were found among groups with respect to outcome variables with the exception of serum CRP. The endurance training was effective in improving 1.5-mile (2.41 km) times and kefir supplementation may have been a factor in attenuating the increase in CRP that was observed over the course of the intervention period. This preliminary study suggests that kefir may be involved in improving the risk profile for cardiovascular disease as defined by CRP.